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Practical ecological knowledge for the temperate reader.

Centaurea Sp. - Knapweed

Family: Asteraceae (Aster) [E-flora]

"Annual to perennial herb. Stem: prostrate to erect, generally ± branched, generally ribbed, occasionally winged. Leaf: basal and cauline, alternate; proximal generally 1–2-pinnately lobed; distal generally ± reduced. Inflorescence: heads disciform or radiant (discoid); involucre cylindric to hemispheric; phyllaries graduated in 6–many series, generally ± ovate, scarious-margined, tip appendages fringed to spiny; receptacle flat, epaleate, long-bristly. Flower: corolla white to pink, purple, or yellow, tube long, distally bent; outer flowers generally sterile, corolla 3–10-lobed, ± bilateral, reduced, inconspicuous or expanded and spreading, ± ray-like; inner flowers bisexual, corolla ± radial; anther base tailed, tip oblong; style tip cylindric, minutely hairy distal to hairy ring, branches very short. Fruit: ± barrel-shaped, ± compressed, attached ± at side; pappus 0 or generally of stiff, unequal bristles or narrow scales.
± 500 species: especially Eurasia, northern Africa; some cultivated. (Greek: plant name associated with Chiron, a centaur) [Keil & Ochsmann 2006 FNANM 19:181–194] Many noxious or invasive weeds." [Jepson]

"Centaurea is a genus with as many as 600 species distributed mainly in the Mediterranean region and southwestern Asia with a few species native to Africa and the New World." [Bohm FSF]

"A genus of about 500 species, herbs, native of Eurasia and n. Africa. References: Keil & Ochsmann in FNA (2006a); Cronquist (1980)=SE. Key adapted from C, SE, and FNA. [also see Acroptilon, Carthamus, and Plectocephalus]" [Weakley FSMAS]

"Centaurea is a large genus of over 400 species, most originating in the Mediterranean region. All of the species treated here have been introduced from Eurasia and now represent a threat to pastures and rangelands." [WeedsW]

Local Species;

  1. Centaurea cyanus - Cornflower [E-flora]
  2. Centaurea diffusa - Diffuse knapweed [E-flora]
  3. Centaurea melitensis - Maltese star-thistle [E-flora]
  4. Centaurea montana - Mountain bluet [E-flora]
  5. Centaurea nigra - Black knapweed [E-flora]
  6. Centaurea nigrescens - Short-fringed knapweed [E-flora]
  7. Centaurea stoebe - Spotted knapweed [E-flora]
  8. Centaurea x moncktonii - Meadow knapweed [E-flora]

Edible Use

Boiled as food - "... Centaurea calcitrapa L., Centaurea nicaeensis All., Centaurea solstitialis L. subsp. schouwii (DC.)Dostal,..." [Lentini & Veza,2007]

Medicinal Use

Species Mentioned: Centaurea spp. (C. maculosa; C. calcitrapa; C. solstitialis; C. cyanus) [IPM]

"Parts used: root, whole herb, flower, seed" [IPM]

"Externally, it can be prepared as a wash for irritated eyes, sores, wounds, and shingles." [IPM]

"Dosage Low- to medium-dose botanical." [IPM]

"Centaurea-Knapweed,.... C cyanus is the cornflower or bachelor's buttons. It is native to Europe, but commonly cultivated in the U.S. as an ornamental flower. The knapweeds include several species of noxious weeds introduced from Eurasia. Spotted knapweed (C maculosa) covers more than 5 million acres just in Montana, often to the exclusion of all other plants. The leaves and roots of many species of Centaurea are edible (Sturtevant). Medicinally, knapweed is both bitter and astringent (Klein)." [BIAD]

"According to Maud Grieve, "the seeds used to be made into powder and drunk in wine as a remedy for stone, and the powdered root was considered a cure for fistula and gravel."18 From Timothy Coffey's book, Parkinson wrote in 1629 that the remedy of Centaurea is to use "not only against the plague and pestilential diseases, but against the poison of scorpions and spiders."19 Culpeper wrote that knapweed "gently heals up running sores, both cancerous and fistulous, and will do the same for scabs of the head."20 " [IPM]

Pharamacology

"Pharmacological Actions Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, antiulcer, anti-nociceptive, antipyretic, and hypoglycemic mines, notably tyramine, have been found. This is of great interest for use in medicine, leading to studies that seek the connection to Parkinson's disease treatment." [IPM]

"In contrast to the cytotoxic effect found in many sesquiterpene lactones a cytostatic effect has been established in chlorohyssopifolins, chlorinated sesquiterpene lactones from the genus Centaurea (Gonzalez et al. 1980)." [Bajaj MAPS 2]

"Example include phenolic composition of the methanolic extract from aerial part of Centaurea borysthenica Gruner and Centaurea transcaucasica Sosn Ex Grossh) plants with cardiomyocytes protective roles (Korga et al. 2017)." [Egbuna FFN]

b-Eudesmol - Turkish Centaurea spp. - Antibacterial Activity Against vs. Staphylococcus aureus - [29] [Rai FMDR]

"Many species of this genus have been used in folk medicine for the treatment of various ailments. Turkey is an important center for endemisms of the Centaurea genus. Formisano et al. [50] investigated the antibacterial activity and volatile constituents of aerial parts of three endemic Centaurea species from Turkey: Centaurea amanicola Hub.-Mor., Centaurea consanguinea DC., and Centaurea ptosimopappa Hayek. S. aureus was most affected by the oil of C. amanicola, with an MIC of 25 mg/mL. The same MIC value was found for B. cereus, which was the species most affected by the oil of C. consanguinea. Sesquiterpenoids, fatty acids, and carbonylic compounds were the most abundant components of the oils. Other Turkish Centaurea species, including Centaurea sessilis Willd., Centaurea armena Boiss., and Centaurea aladagensis Wagenitz, also yielded EOs with antibacterial activity against S. aureus [29,51]. The main component of the EOs of these taxa is b-eudesmol, which is present at 12.4% and 19.3% in C. sessilis and C. armena, respectively." [Rai FMDR]

"Antimicrobial: Various Centaurea species have shown in vitro broad antimierobial activities, including inhibiting effects on some multiple antibiotie resistant bacteria, Enterococcus faecalis, and a DNA virus." [IPM]

Phytochemicals

"The genus Ragwort (Senecio L.) is especially rich in l-ornithine (Figure 11) derived alkaloids (senecionine, senecivernine,..., doronine)70 and the genus Knapweed (Centaurea L.) in alkaloids derived from l-tryptophan, for example afzelin and apigenin." [Elsevier ASOL]

"Anthocyanins acylated with succinic acid have previously been isolated from some species in the genus Centaurea (Compositae), and identified as the 3-[6-succinylglucoside]- 5-glucosides of cyanidin and pelargonidin." [Andersen FCBA]

Naringenin (= 5,7,4'-Trihydroxyflavanone) (flavanone) - "Widespread; Artembia sp., Baccharis sp., Centaurea sp., Dahlia sp. (Asteraceae); Citrus paradisi (grapefruit), Citrus spp. (Rutaceae); glycosides widespread" - "Bitter (CYP) [mosquito larvicide]" [Polya BTPBC]

Safynol (long chain polyacetylene alcohol) - Bidens campylotheca [herb], Carthamus tinctorzlls [fungal- infected], Centaurea spp. [herb] (Asteraceae) - COX, 5-LOX [phytoalexin, antifungal]" [Polya BTPBC]

Allelochemicals

"Exotic plant invasions often cause high mortality in native populations. A few examples demonstrate the importance of allelopathy for successful invasion e.g. two of North America’s most destructive invaders,Centaurea maculosa auct. Amer., and C. diffusa Lam. that establish virtual monocultures and both species have powerful antiplant and antimicrobial root exudates (Callaway et al.2005)." [Dighton IIS]

"Beside their role in agriculture, allelochemicals released from roots may also play a role in the establishment of some invasive species. For example, the ability of diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa) and spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) to invade grasslands in the western United States compared to grasslands in Eurasia where they are native, appears to be due to the adverse effects of their root exudates on native North American species compared to Eurasian species (Callaway and Aschehoug, 2000). In experiments using activated carbon to adsorb or deactivate the root exudates, Callaway and Aschehoug (2000) demonstrated that the advantage of diffuse knapweed over others was, at least in part, due to chemical mediation. Similarly, Ridenour and Callaway (2001) found that root exudates from spotted knapweed inhibited growth of a native bunchgrass (Festuca idahoensis). Although the chemicals responsible for the inhibition were not characterized in this study, sesquiterpene lactones have been isolated from foliar parts of Centaurea spp. (Weston and Duke, 2003)." [Gregory PR]

Ecological Importance

"Instead of finding that the allelopathic chemical in spotted knapweed (C. maculosa), catechin, causes oxidative stress to the surrounding plant life and thereby kills it, a USDA study found that this plant acted as a potent antioxidant to the soil, restored the balance of microbial life, and cleansed it of any free radicals or toxicities. A separate study also revealed that other phytotoxins of C. diffusa facilitate nutrient uptake for the plant, helping it acquire iron from deep within the earth and providing the element to the surface soil. It is also true that iron is scarce in many of the deprived, alkaline-rich environments that knapweed likes to invade. Also, with deeply penetrating taproots 3 to 6 feet long, dense stands of the yellow star thisde (C. solstitialis) may restore the fertility, structure, and permeability of the degraded soils in which it inhabits." [IPM]

Cultivation & Propagation

Species Mentioned: Centaurea [HNIDC Ellis] [Only genus mentioned]

"For best results, give bachelor’s-buttons full sun and rich, moist, neutral soil. They will, however, tolerate average soil and drought. Always water early in the day to give the leaves a chance to dry before nightfall. Add organic matter or fertilizer to the planting site before seeding, and do not fertilize again; extra fertil­izer promotes the development of leaves rather than flowers. By midsummer, bachelor’s-buttons tend to become woody and unsightly. Picking flowers prolongs bloom until July, but plan on pulling out the spent plants and replacing them with a later-blooming annual..." [HNIDC Ellis]

Wildlife

"Seeds are favored by birds, par­ticularly finches." [HNIDC Ellis]

Methods of Control

Moths: "Pterolonche Zeller
P. inspersa Staudinger. Introduced from the Mediterranean region to combat the introduced European knapweed (Centaurea sp.) in (4) Pacific nw." [Ross H. Arrett]

Pathogens: Pythium rostratum "I have recently filed a patent application for a mycoherbicide for knapweeds of eastern Washington state. This covers an isolate of Pythium rostratum Butler introduced from Europe, and two biochemical mu- tants that do not produce oospores but that were found effective as biocontrol agents for introduced Centaurea spp. Commercialization of this pathogen may be realized in the future." [Leatham FIM]

Heavy Metals

[SoilBio-44] [SoilBio-44]

References

Centaurea cyanus - cornflower

Centaurea cyanus 01 [1]
Centaurea cyanus

Centaurea cyanus L. - "The native range of this species is Central & E. Medit. It is an annual and grows primarily in the temperate biome. It is used as a medicine and invertebrate food and has environmental uses." [POWO]

"You should never forget that every creature has its purpose in the cycle of nature and can also be very important to humans. Cornflowers (Centaurea cyanus), to name an example, are now relatively rare, because they have been banished from cereal fields as a so-called weed. The fact that they are not only pleasing to the eye, but also valuable medicinal plants generally goes unnoticed. ... In nature there is nothing bad, and there is a solution to every problem." [Holzer Perm]

"Centaurea cyanus is a ANNUAL growing to 1 m (3ft 3in) by 0.3 m (1ft) at a fast rate. It is not frost tender. It is in flower from June to August, and the seeds ripen from August to October.
The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Bees, flies, Lepidoptera (Moths & Butterflies). The plant is self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought." [PFAF]

"General: Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect, branched, loosely hairy, 0.2-1.2 m tall." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Leaves: Basal leaves linear to lanceolate, entire or with a few teeth and narrow lobes towards the base, white-woolly below, up to 13 cm long and 1 cm wide, soon deciduous; stem leaves similar, reduced and narrower upwards." [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat/Range: "Dry roadsides in the lowland and montane zones; infrequent in S BC; introduced from the Mediterranean region." [IFBC-E-flora] " Centaurea cyanus, unlike in central Europe where it becomes rare it is still very common in northern Italy, also with a high coverage." [Holzner BEW]

"Centaurea cyanus Linnaeus, Cornflower, Batchelor's-buttons. Cp (DE, FL, GA, NC, SC, VA), Pd (DE, GA, NC, SC, VA), Mt (NC, SC, VA, WV): roadsides, disturbed areas; common (uncommon in VA and WV Mountains, uncommon in DE, rare in FL), native of Mediterranean Europe. April-June. [= RAB, C, F, FNA, G, K, S, SE, W, WH]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Centaurea cyanus
"Grows in grasslands, open woods, below 7000 ft. Native to southern Europe. sometimes used in wildflower mixes along roads or in parks, spreading by seed and considered a noxious weed. Nonnative" [WildPNW]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Edible Use

"In Poland, making a fermented, fizzy, cornflower Centaurea cyanus flower lemonade was very common in the mid-twentieth century but has not been reported earlier or later (it probably disappeared mainly due to the decline of C. cyanus populations cause by the development of intense agriculture)" [Tardio MWEP]

  • Young Shoots
    • "The young shoots are edible[7]." [PFAF]
  • Flowers
    • "Raw or cooked. The fresh florets can be used in salads[238]. They are used as a vegetable or a garnish[183]." [PFAF] "... it is Centaurea cyanus, whose petals were widely used to make a refreshing fermented drink" [Anderson Ethnobiology]
    • Wine: "Centaurea cyanus L. ON/LN: chaber bławatek. LN: chaber, bławat, bławatek. Flowers: combined with sugar to make wine, commonly used until the mid-20th century, but now nearly forgotten, Pk [55,65], Ps [65]; used to dye vinegar, until the 18th century [25]." [Luczaj,2007]
    • "Surprisingly, in a country where children have always been discouraged from drinking alcohol, several respondents wrote about children independently making a kind of "wine", particularly with the petals of Centaurea cyanus, which were fermented for some time with water and sugar (12 reports from various regions). The inventory of children's snacks seems to be uniform across the country with very few regional differences." [Luczaj,2008]
  • Dye: "An edible blue dye is obtained from the flowers, used for colouring sugar and confections[183]." [PFAF]

Other Use

  • Petals
    • Ink/Dye: "A blue ink and a dye is obtained from the petals mixed with alum-water[4, 100, 115, 201]. The dye gives a lovely colour to linen, but it is transient[4]." [PFAF] "Robert Boyle, writing in the seventeenth century, recommended a blue dye prepared from petals of the cornflower (Centaurea cyanus L., Compositae). According to Harley (1982), such was his reputation as a scientist that the colour was recommended for watercolour painting in some eighteenth century books, either as cornflower blue, Boyle’s blue or cyan blue. The colour was strongly criticised by Hoofnail (1738); there is also no evidence that it was ever supplied commercially (Harley, 1982). Schweppe (1992) lists apigenin, isoswertisin, naringin, cyanidin, pelargonidin and succinylcyanin as extractable dye components of Centaurea cyanus L." [Eastaugh PC] "By adding ethanol to sap squeezed from Centaurea cyanus petals, Bayer (1958) was able to precipitate the blue antocyan pigment, which he called protocyanin to distinguish it from the ordinary cyanin of red petals." [Shkolnik TEP]
    • Pot-pourri: "The dried petals are used in pot-pourri in order to add colour[4, 268]." [PFAF]
  • Plant
    • Extract: "Extracts of the plant are added to hair shampoos and rinses[238]." [PFAF]

Medicinal Use

"Cornflower has a long history of herbal use, though it is seldom employed nowadays. In France it is still used as a remedy for tired eyes, but opinions differ as to its efficacy[254, 268]." [PFAF]

"Cornflower (C. cyanus) has been used for fever, constipation, leucorrhea, menstrual disorders, candida, as a laxative, tonic, diuretic, expectorant, or as a stimulant for liver and gallbladder function. It is also reported as a nervine that relieves discornforts caused by nerve impairment. Externally, the flower is used in eye washes for inflammation and conjunctivitis, and for eczema, sores, wounds, hemorrhoids." [IPM]

  • Eye Medicine
    • "the edible flower was thought to help strengthen eyesight." [NAH Orr]
    • "Traditionally it is said to work best on blue eyes, whilst Plantago major (great plantain) was used for brown eyes[268]." [PFAF]
    • Petal Water: "A water distilled from the petals was formerly in repute as a remedy for weak eyes[4] and a soothing lotion for conjunctivitis[7, 240]." [PFAF]
  • Flowers
    • "The dried flowers are antipruritic, antitussive, astringent, weakly diuretic, emmenagogue, ophthalmic, very mildly purgative, and tonic[4, 7, 9, 21, 201, 240]." [PFAF]
    • Infusion: "An infusion can be used in the treatment of dropsy, constipation, or as a mouthwash for ulcers and bleeding gums[9, 238]. This infusion is also taken as a bitter tonic and stimulant, improving the digestion and possibly supporting the liver as well as improving resistance to infections[254]." [PFAF]
    • Centaurea cyanus L. - Flowers - Decoction - Eye infections [Mustafa et al.,2012]
    • Centaurea cyanus L. (FABCEN) - Flowers
      Infusion, in external application - To treat reddened eyes
      Infusion, in local application - "To heal eye inflammations; to give a special gloss and blue nuance to grey and white hair (avoiding the yellowing of hair)" [Gertsch, 2004] "Cold compresses made with flowers of Centaurea cyanus and Euphrasia rostkoviana are being used to treat eye diseases and to improve sight." [Redzic,2007]
  • Seeds
    • "The seeds are used as a mild laxative for children[7, 254]." [PFAF]
  • Leaves
    • Decoction: "A decoction of the leaves is antirheumatic[7, 254]. Antifungal [303]." [PFAF]

Phytochemicals

"Cornflower, bachelor's button (C. cyanus)-acetic acid, aluminum, apigenin, apiin, cichoriin, cnicin, cyanidin-3,S-diglucoside, cyanin, cyano- centaurein, fragarin, iron, mucilage, pelargonin, polygalacturonic acids, protocyanin, quercimeretrin, tannin, trideca-tetrain, wax" [IPM]

Centaurea cyanus - Anthocyanin - "Cyanidin 3-malonylglucoside" - Obtained from plant cell culture [Bajaj MAPS 5]

"The structure of the self-assembled supramolecular pigment from the blue cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) was elucidated by Kondo et al. [37a]; the supramolecular components are succinylcyanin (Sucy), a cyanidin chromophore with a sugar in position 3, malonylflavone (Mafl), a flavone with a sugar in position 3, and the metal ions Mg2+ and Fe3+, the exact composition being [Sucy6Mafl6Fe3+Mg2+]. These authors proposed that the supramolecular complex should be similar to that of commelinin (Figure 1.8). The metal centre organizes the geometry of the complex, which is held together by weak hydrophobic interactions, such as π–π stacking of the aromatic rings and hydrogen bonding through the sugar moieties [37]." [Bechtold HNC] Centaurea_flowers.PNG [Fakhri et al.,2021] Centaurea_flowers2.PNG [Fakhri et al.,2021] Centaurea_flowers3.PNG [Fakhri et al.,2021]

Research

"Willstatter and Everest identified the first anthocyanin in 1913, from the blue cornflower Centaurea cyanus (cited in Bohm, 1998). Since then approximately 630 different anthocyanins have been structurally defined". [Davies PPM]

"Anthocyanins (Greek anthos, flower and Greek kyanos, blue), terminology used orig­inally to describe the blue pigment of the cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) (Marquart, 1835), are the most important group of water-soluble plant pigments visible to the human eye. They belong to the most widespread class of phenolic compounds collec­tively named flavonoids with, to the end of 1985, more than 4000 structures (Harborne, 1988), including some 240 different naturally occurring anthocyanins." [Harborne MPB]

"A major effort has been made to determine the structure of the remarkable blue pigment from C. cyanus, the cornflower. Willstatter and Everest (1913) described the pigment from cornflower as cyanidin 3,5-di-0-glucoside. Re-examination of the pigment by Japanese workers (Takeda and Tominaga, 1983; Tamura et aI., 1983) led to a revision of the structure to cyanidin 3-0-(6"-0-succinoylglucoside)-5-0-glucoside. A recent report by Kondo et al. (1994) describes the structure of "protocyanin" as consisting of six molecules each of succinoylcyanin and malonyl flavone, and one equivalent each of ferrous and magnesium ions. This "supermolecule," which has a molecular weight of 8511, has the capacity for self-organization. A survey of several additional species of Centaurea suggests that this pigment may occur widely in the genus (Sulyok and Laszlo-Bencsik, 1985)." [Bohm FSF]

"Stem tissue from the blue flowered Centaurea cyanus was used as the source tissue for the generation of a callus and suspension cell line that produces anthocyanins upon irradiation with UV light (Kakegawa et al. 1987)." [Gould A]

"There are also reports describing more direct evidence for anthocyanin involvement in UV protection. For example, in cultured cells of the cornflower Centaurea cyanus, the presence of cyanidin 3-O-(6-O-malonyl) glucoside appreciably reduced the extent of damage to DNA following UV-B or UV-C irradiation." [Andersen FCBA]

"...the former pigment isolated from cornflower, Centaurea cyanus, was shown to be part of the self-assembled supramolecule protocyanin, composed of six molecules each of malonylflavone and succinylcyanin complexed with magnesium and ferric ions (Section 10.2.7)." [Andersen FCBA]

"The cornflower also represents a species that, despite its widespread use in the Italian medical phytotherapy for minor ocular inflammations (Campanini, 1998) (in the Marches we recorded both this use and a hair dyeing usage, which gives a special gloss blue nuance to the white hair of elderly women), is not still very well-known phytochemically. Recently, polysaccharides found to be mainly composed of galacturonic acid, arabinose, glucose, rhamnose and galactose, and extracted from its flower-head, have shown anti-inflammatory and immunological effects (Garbaci et al., 1999)." [Gertsch, 2004]

Pharmacology

"Compounds arising from the amide formation between serotonin and a HCA were observed – beside C. tinctorius [Carthamus tinctorius L. (Asteraceae)] – in two asteraceous species, Centaurea moschata L. [syn of Amberboa moschata] (Sarker et al. 1997) and C. cyanus L., cornflower (Sarker et al. 2001). These metabolites showed significant toxicity in a brine shrimp lethality bioassay." [Eckart-Eich]

Cultivation & Propagation

"Succeeds in ordinary garden soil[1, 200]. Prefers a well-drained fertile soil and a sunny position[200]. Tolerates dry, low fertility and alkaline soils[200]. Established plants are drought tolerant[201]. A very ornamental plant[1], there are many named varieties[188]. The flowers are often used in dried-flower arrangements because they retain their colour well[7]. A good plant for bees, butterflies and moths[20, 30, 108]. The cornflower is considered to be a good companion, in small quantities, for cereal crops[18, 20], though another report says that its greedy roots deprive the cultivated plants of nutrients and its tough stem dulls the reaper's sickle[4]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]." [PFAF]

"Seed - sow March in the greenhouse. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in May. The seed can also be sown in situ during April, whilst in areas where the winters are not too cold a sowing in situ during September will produce larger and earlier-flowering plants" [PFAF]

"When to Plant: Most gardeners plant the seeds in the open ground several weeks before the last frost." [NSSH Bubel]
"When to Plant: Cover lightly with fine soil. Thin plants to 8 inches apart. They bloom in cool weather." [NSSH Bubel]
"Growing Conditions: Bachelor’s buttons tolerate cold weather, crowding, and poor soils, but they do not transplant well." [NSSH Bubel]

Mycorrhizal Fungi

"Relatively little is known about the effects of infection by mycorrhizal fungi on the male function of plants. In the field, the size and duration of the floral display for insect-pollinated species may affect reproduction by affecting the number of pollinator visits (Patton and Ford 1983; Schaffer and Schaffer 1979; Schemske 1980a,b). Thus, it is not surprising to find that when mycorrhizal infection increased the floral display, it also increased pollinator visitation frequency in the annuals Tagetes patula and Centaurea cyanus (Gange and Smith 2005)." [Koltai AMPF]

Weed Control

"To what extent agricultural measures other than chemical control have contributed (directly or indirectly) towards reducing weed populations since the 1950s is difficult to determine. In some cases, however, the dominating influences may be pointed out with a high degree of certainty Thus, the very pronounced decline in the tall-growing and nitrogen-favoured Sinapis arvensis and Centaurea cyanus is certainly predominantly a result of the frequent use of herbicides to which these species are extremely sensitive. The similarly pronounced decline of Spergula arvensis is, on the other hand, certainly largely caused by cultural measures having impaired the competitive situation of this weed as much as, or more than, the herbicides." [Hakansson WWM]

"...the winter-annual (‘winter-cereal’) weed Centaurea cyanus, which is also very sensitive to the herbicides used, declined most rapidly where winter cereals were frequently grown." [Hakansson WWM]

"The long-term dynamics of a plant population is, of course, determined by the formation and properties of reproductive and perennating organs of the plant. ....The conditions certainly vary between species (e.g. Schnieders, 1999). From my own field observations, two examples may be given. Thus, whereas very small plants of Chenopodium album in dense cereal stands frequently set one or a few seeds, even comparatively big plants of Centaurea cyanus in dense cereal stands often do not flower." [Hakansson WWM]

Pathogens

"Maculosin {(I), (3S-cis)-hexahydro-3-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl]pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrazine- 1,4-dione} is a host specific fungal toxin produced by Alternaria alternata on spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa).1 It was discovered in the course of a systematic search for bioactive natural products for weed control among weed pathogens, a novel approach developed by professor Gary Strobel at Montana State University.2 Initially the authors suggested the name maculosins for the entire series of related dipeptides isolated from Alternaria alternata. Only two compounds in the series were phytotoxic and they were assigned individual names of maculosin-1 (I) and maculosin-2 (II). However, the less active maculosin-2 was not mentioned after that and maculosin-1 became known simply as maculosin." [Cutler BANPA]

"Maculosin-1 possesses a truly remarkable combination of useful properties. First, and most important, it is highly toxic to the target species. In primary tests maculosin-1 produced necrotic lesions on detached and punctured spotted knapweed leaves at the concentration as low as 10–5 mole/l. Second, its structure is very simple. It is just a combination of two common amino acids — proline and tyrosine. Third, in maculosin-1 these amino acids form a cycle and the whole structure becomes very stable." [Cutler BANPA]

Maculosin-2 also reported to effect Russian knapweed (Centaurea repens), now known as Acroptilon repens [Cutler BANPA]

Remediation

"Further, the color of cornflower is said to change depending on the composition of the soil. Bachelor's buttonlcornflower (C. cyanus) is a hyperaccumulator of nickel and is a good candidate for the remediation of radiocesium (Cs-134). In addition, bachelor's button was found surviving-along with a handful of other species-in a site heavily contaminated with oil products and therefore considered for future phytoremediation by natural attunation. C. virgata was also determined to be a moderately high accumulator of iron, copper, zinc, and cadmium." [IPM]

Synonyms

  • Leucacantha cyanus (L.) Nieuwl. & Lunell
  • Centaurea pulcherrima Wight ex DC. - "This name is a synonym of Centaurea cyanus" [POWO]

References

  • [E-flora] https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Centaurea%20cyanus&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed March 24, 2021
  • [Fakhri et al.,2021] Fakhri, Sajad, et al. "Antioxidant and anticancer potentials of edible flowers: where do we stand?." Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 62.31 (2022): 8589-8645.
  • [Gertsch, 2004] Gertsch, Jürg, Kathrin Gertsch-Roost, and Otto Sticher. "Phyllanthus piscatorum, ethnopharmacological studies on a women’s medicinal plant of the Yanomamı̈ Amerindians." Journal of ethnopharmacology 91.2-3 (2004): 181-188.
  • [Luczaj,2007] Łuczaj, Łukasz, and Wojciech M. Szymański. "Wild vascular plants gathered for consumption in the Polish countryside: a review." Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3 (2007): 1-22.
  • [Luczaj,2008] Łuczaj, Łukasz. "Archival data on wild food plants used in Poland in 1948." Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 4 (2008): 1-19.
  • [Mustafa et al.,2012] Mustafa, Behxhet, et al. "Medical ethnobotany of the Albanian Alps in Kosovo." Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 8 (2012): 1-14.
  • [PFAF] https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Centaurea+cyanus, Accessed March 24, 2021
  • [Redzic,2007] S Redžić, Sulejman. "The ecological aspect of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology of population in Bosnia and Herzegovina." Collegium antropologicum 31.3 (2007): 869-890.

Image References

Centaurea diffusa - diffuse knapweed

Centaurea diffusa sl32 [1]
Centaurea diffusa 		Centaurea diffusa sl44 [2]
Centaurea diffusa 		Centaurea diffusa sl4 [3]
Centaurea diffusa

Centaurea diffusa Lam. - "The native range of this species is Europe to SW. Siberia and Caucasus. It is a biennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]
"Diffuse knapweed is an annual that is found throughout the shrub steppe." [Apostol RPNW]

"Diffuse knapweed infests roadsides, waste areas and dry rangelands, and as a highly competitive plant, threatens to exclude many desirable species. Flowering occurs from July to September." [WeedsW]

"General: Annual, biennial or short-lived perennial herb from a taproot; stems erect, branched, sparsely hairy, 10-60 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Leaves: Basal leaves pinnately divided into linear segments, broadly lanceolate in outline, 3.5-20 cm long, 0.5-3.5 cm wide, grey-green, lightly dense-hairy, soon deciduous; stem leaves similar, reduced upwards." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Habitat / Range Dry roadsides, disturbed areas, overgrazed grasslands and shrublands in the steppe and lower montane zones; common in S BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; introduced from the E Mediterranean region." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Centaurea diffusa Lamarck, Tumble Knapweed. Naturalized in Davidson County, TN (Chester, Wofford, & Kral 1997); also in KY (FNA). [= C, F, FNA, G, K; = Acosta diffusa (Lamarck) Soják]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Cultivation

"Control can be done by hand pulling of plants if enough of the taproot is extracted to prevent regeneration (Roche and Roche 1999). Pulling needs to be repeated for a few years and therefore is possible only in small areas." [Apostol RPNW]

"Establishing competitive bunchgrasses can reduce diffuse knapweed and probably is the best strategy for long-term control. An integrated approach that includes herbicide, grazing, and seed- ing of bunchgrasses can be very effective. There is also some hope for eventual biological control (Roche and Roche 1999)." [Apostol RPNW]

"Spotted knapweed also occurs throughout the shrub steppe but is more common where annual precipitation is above 200 millimeters. Control techniques are similar to those for diffuse knapweed (Sheley et al. 1999b)." [Apostol RPNW]

"After 30 years of effort and the introduction of twelve different species of biological control agents, diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa) has declined in many areas of the southern Okanagan since the introduction of a weevil, Larinus minutus (Bourchier et al. 2002b). Feeding by adult Larinus in the spring kills knapweed plants, but it appears to be replaced by cheatgrass in many sites, and recent fires have disrupted biological control at some locations." [Apostol RPNW]

Biological Control of Weeds with Rusts: "Currently, the control of diffuse and spotted knapweeds (Centaurea diffusa and C. maculosa) with Puccinia jaceae appears promising, since it forms heavy stem infections early in the season. This rust has a restricted and stable host range and the danger of damaging safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) is restricted to a short period during the seedling stage of the plant and thus appears to be of minor importance (Mortensen et al. 1991)." [Esser PRB]

"An invasive Eurasian forb (Centaurea diffusa Lam.), a noxious weed in North America, has strong negative effects on three native bunchgrass species (Festuca ovina L., Koeleria iaerssenii, and Agropyron crista tum (L.) Gaertn.) [18]. Such inhibitory effects, however, were absent in closely related grass species from the native communities of C. diffusa. Callaway and Aschehoug [18] proposed that North American grasses have not adapted to allelochemi- cals released by the introduced forbs, while Eurasian species have." [Mallik CEP]

Centaurea diffusa
"Grows in many steppe soils. Along with spotted knapweed, C. biebersteinii, and yellow starthistle, C. solstitial is, this aggressive invasive weed heavily dominates range lands, largely reducing livestock and wildlife forage because of the lack of palpability. Nonnative" [WildPNW]

Pathogens

Puccinia jaceae (Centaurea rusts) Target Species - Centaurea diffusa - Imported to Canada (B.C.), U.S. (Washington, Oregon, Idaho,Montana, South Dakota) [Khachatourians AMB2]

Synonyms

References

Image References

Centaurea melitensis - Maltese star-thistle

Maltese star thistle (Centaurea melitensis) (5831615942) [1]
Centaurea Melitensis 		Centaurea melitensis [2]
Centaurea Melitensis 		Centaurea Melitensis Malta Star-Thistle Basal Rosette [3]
Centaurea Melitensis

"Centaurea melitensis is a ANNUAL growing to 0.5 m (1ft 8in). It is hardy to zone (UK) 7. It is in flower from July to September, and the seeds ripen from September to October.
The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Bees, flies, Lepidoptera (Moths & Butterflies). The plant is self-fertile. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought." [PFAF]

"A related species, Malta starthistle (c. melitensis L.) is similar to the yellow starthistle except Malta starthistle has smaller seed heads with smaller spines which are branched at the base." [WeedsW]

"General: Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect, winged, ridged, branched, 15-70 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Leaves: Basal leaves oblanceolate, toothed to lobed, hairy; stem leaves becoming lanceolate to linear-oblong, entire and reduced." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Habitat / Range Mesic disturbed areas in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC, known recently only from Samuel and Georgeson Islands in the Gulf Islands; introduced from the Mediterranean region." [IFBC-E-flora]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Medicinal Use

Cultivation & Propagation

"We do not have information on this species, but the following notes are based on the closely related C. solstitialis. Succeeds in ordinary garden soil[1, 200]. Prefers a well-drained fertile soil and a sunny position[200]. Tolerates dry, low fertility and alkaline soils[200]. A good bee and butterfly plant the flowers are rich in nectar[171]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]." [PFAF]

"Seed - sow April in a cold frame. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out into their permanent positions in the summer. If you have sufficient seed it can be sown in situ in the spring, and an autumn swing in situ might also be worth trying." [PFAF]

Image References

References

Centaurea montana - Perennial Cornflower


Centaurea montana
Centaurea montana
Centaurea montana

Other Names: Mountain bluet [E-flora]

Eye Wash

Centaurea montana L. - "The native range of this species is Europe. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea montana is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.5 m (1ft 8in) by 1 m (3ft 3in) at a fast rate. It is hardy to zone (UK) 3 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from May to August, and the seeds ripen from Jul to September. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, flies, lepidoptera, self.The plant is self-fertile." "It is noted for attracting wildlife." "Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought." [PFAF]

  • Synonyms:
    • Centaurea montana var. alba [E-flora]
  • General: Perennial herb from a taproot; stems erect, usually simple, narrow-winged, lightly hairy, 30-80 cm tall. [IFBC-E-flora]
  • Leaves: Basal and lower to middle stem leaves broadly lanceolate, entire, the bases winged and continuous with the stems, lightly woolly below, nearly glabrous above, reduced upwards. [IFBC-E-flora]
  • Flowers: Heads discoid, solitary on the stems; involucres 20-25 mm tall, 12-15 mm wide; involucral bracts egg-shaped to narrowly egg-shaped, glabrous, with dark brown or black, tattered margins towards the apex; disk flowers blue, rarely white, the sterile marginal ones 40-45 mm long, enlarged at the tips with five lobes, the central perfect ones about 16 mm long. [IFBC-E-flora]
  • Fruits: Achenes light yellow, glossy, 5-6 mm long; pappus about 0.5 mm long. [IFBC-E-flora]
  • Habitat / Range: Mesic roadsides and waste places in the lowland zone; infrequent in SW BC, known from S Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland; introduced from Europe. [IFBC-E-flora]
  • Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Medicinal Use

  • Eye Medicine Mountain cornflower is seldom used in modern herbalism, though it does still have a reputation in parts of Europe as a wash for tired eyes[268]. It is considered to be most effective on blue eyes, great plantain (Plantago majus) being used for brown eyes[268]. [PFAF]
  • Flowers: The dried flowers are antitussive, astringent, weakly diuretic, emmenagogue, ophthalmic, very mildly purgative and tonic[9]. [PFAF]
    • Infusion: An infusion can be used as a treatment for dropsy, constipation, as a mouthwash for bleeding gums and as an eye bath for conjunctivitis[9]. [PFAF]

Pharmacology

Activites and Ethnobotanical Uses [DukePhyt]
  • Astringent
  • Collyrium
  • Cyanogenetic
  • Diuretic
  • Emmenagogue
  • Fever
  • Pectoral
  • Stimulant
  • Tonic

Phytochemicals

"In individual plants of Centaurea montana originating from different restricted areas in the French southern Alps, in addition to practically pure O-glycosidic patterns, these molecules are arranged in many diverse assemblages of simple or complex C-glycoside derivatives — along with O-glycosides in some. This results in an extraordinary diversity of flavonoid patterns of this species, which comprise from five to more than 20 compounds." [Andersen FCBA]

"The origin of the huge chemical diversity in Centaurea montana was shown to result from its reproductive mode combining vegetative reproduction and strictly allogamous pollination (completely preventing autogamy and strongly limiting fertility between genetically related partners), both confirmed by flavonoid analysis of wild and experimental plants from breed- ing experiences. Clonal ramets are readily identifiable by identical flavonoid profiles of closely collected individuals. Interindividual diversity is also consistently observed in the progeny of most of the experimental crosses, revealing a generalized heterozygosis of wild individuals, an expectable consequence of the obligate allogamy of this species." [Andersen FCBA]

"Two alkaloids schischkinnin and montamine have been isolated from the seeds of Centaurea schischkinii (Asteraceae) and Centaurea Montana (Asteraceae). Both alkaloids exhibited significant cytotoxicity against human colon cancer cell lines. [30]" [Kainsa.,2012]

"Centaurea montana (family: Asteraceae alt. Compositae), an erect plant with large, reddish, blue centre flower heads, is native to Australia, Belgium and Italy, and also cultivated in many countries of the world.1 While a number of flavo- noids,2–5 acetylenes and a lignan, arctigenin,5 have previ- ously been reported from the aerial parts of C. montana,2–5 to our knowledge, no report on the isolation of any plant sec- ondary metabolites from the seeds or any pharmacological properties of this plant is available to date. Many species of the genus Centaurea have long been used in traditional medicine to cure various ailments, e.g., diabetes, diarrhoea, rheumatism, malaria, hypertension, etc., and a variety of secondary metabolites have been reported from different species of this genus.6 As a part of our ongoing phytochemical investigation on the species of the genus Centaurea,6–11 we now report on the isolation, structure elucidation and bio- activity of a series of compounds, including a new flavanone named, montanoside (4), six epoxylignans, berchemol (7), berchemol 40-O-b-D-glucoside (5), pinoresinol (10), pinore- sinol 4-O-b-D-glucoside (8), pinoresinol 4,40-di-O-b-D-glu- coside (6), pinoresinol 4-O-apiose-(1/2)-b-D-glucoside (9), two quinic acid derivatives, trans-3-O-p-coumaroyl- quinic acid (1), cis-3-O-p-coumaroylquinic acid (2), and eight indole alkaloids, tryptamine (3), N-(4-hydroxycinnamoyl)-5- hydroxytryptamine (11), cis-N-(4-hydroxycinnamoyl)-5- hydroxytryptamine (12), centcyamine (16), cis-centcyamine (17), moschamine (13), cis-moschamine (14) and a novel dimer montamine (15) from the seeds of C. montana." [Shoeb,2006]

"Compounds (1–17) isolated and identified from the seeds of C. montana showed various levels of activities in the DPPH, the brine shrimps lethality and the MTT cytotoxicity assays. However, the most significant finding is the discovery of the novel dimeric indole alkaloid, montamine (15), which exhibited significant in vitro anticancer activity against the CaCo2 cell line with an IC50 value of 43.9 mM." [Shoeb,2006]

Cultivation

"Succeeds in ordinary garden soil[1, 200]. Prefers a moist well-drained fertile soil and a sunny position[200]. Tolerates dry, low fertility and alkaline soils[200]. Plants are hardy to at least -20oc[187]. A very ornamental plant[1], there are some named varieties[187]. The plants have creeping rhizomes and form spreading patches[187]. A good bee plant[108]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]. " [PFAF]

  • Groundcover: "Can be used as a ground cover plant in a sunny position[188, 208]." [PFAF]

Propagation

"Seed - sow March in a greenhouse. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out into their permanent positions in the summer. The seed is best sown as soon as it is ripe in August in a greenhouse, overwintered under cover, and planted out in spring. Division in autumn. Very easy, larger clumps can be replanted direct into their permanent positions, though it is best to pot up smaller clumps and grow them on in a cold frame until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the summer or following spring. This should be done at least once every three years in order to maintain the plants vigour. Basal cuttings in spring. Harvest the shoots when they are about 5 - 10cm long with plenty of underground stem. Pot them up into individual pots and keep them in light shade in a cold frame or greenhouse until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the summer." [PFAF]

References

  • BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany, A Database of Foods, Drugs, Dyes and Fibers of Native American Peoples, Derived from Plants. Dearborn MI, http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/?string=Centaurea, Accessed Sept 8, 2016
    • (Romero,John) Romero, John Bruno, 1954, The Botanical Lore of the California Indians, New York. Vantage Press, Inc., page 69
    • [Speck, Frank] Speck, Frank G., R.B. Hassrick and E.S. Carpenter, 1942, Rappahannock Herbals, Folk-Lore and Science of Cures, Proceedings of the Delaware County Institute of Science 10:7-55., page 33
    • (Vestal,Paul) Vestal, Paul A. and Richard Evans Schultes, 1939, The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians, Cambridge MA. Botanical Museum of Harvard University, page 58
  • DukePhyt - Centaurea montana, James Duke Phytochemical Database, Accessed Sept 8, 2016
  • [E-flora] Centaurea montana, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Centaurea%20montana, In Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2015. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Accessed: 08/09/2016 3:52:17 PM ]
  • [Jepson] David J. Keil 2016. Centaurea, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=367, accessed on September 08, 2016.
  • [Kainsa.,2012] Kainsa, Sushma, Praveen Kumar, and Poonam Rani. "Medicinal plants of Asian origin having anticancer potential: short review." Asian J Biomed Pharm Sci 2.10 (2012): 1-11.
  • [PFAF] Centaurea montana - L., http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Centaurea+montana, Accessed Sept 8, 2016
  • [Shoeb,2006] Shoeb, Mohammad, et al. "Montamine, a unique dimeric indole alkaloid, from the seeds of Centaurea montana (Asteraceae), and its in vitro cytotoxic activity against the CaCo2 colon cancer cells." Tetrahedron 62.48 (2006): 11172-11177.

Centaurea nigra - black knapweed

Centaurea nigra (15285985760) [1]
Centaurea nigra 		Centaurea nigra Linné. ― Centaurée noire. ― (Black knapweed). [2]
Centaurea nigra

Centaurea nigra L. - "The native range of this species is Europe. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea nigra is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft). It is hardy to zone (UK) 5 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from June to September, and the seeds ripen from August to October.
The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Bees, flies, Lepidoptera (Moths & Butterflies). The plant is self-fertile. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought." [PFAF]

"General: Perennial herb from a taproot; stems erect, branched, rough-hairy, 10-80 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Leaves: Basal leaves oblanceolate, long-stalked, toothed or shallowly lobed to entire, long-hairy above and below, the blade up to 15 cm long and 3 cm wide; stem leaves reduced and becoming unstalked upward." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Habitat / Range Mesic to dry roadsides and fields in the lowland and montane zones; rare in S BC south of 51degreeN; introduced from Europe." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Centaurea nigra Linnaeus, Black Knapweed, Spanish-buttons. Mt (WV), Pd (DE, VA), Cp (DE): roadsides, disturbed areas; uncommon (rare in VA), native of Europe. July-October. [= C, F, FNA, G, K, SE]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Edible Use

"Flower petals - raw. Added to salads[183]." [PFAF]

Medicinal Use

"The roots and seeds are diaphoretic, diuretic, tonic and vulnerary[4, 61]. The plant once had a very high reputation as a healer of wounds[4]." [PFAF]

Cultivation & Propagation

"Succeeds in ordinary garden soil[1, 200]. Prefers a well-drained fertile soil and a sunny position[200]. Tolerates dry, low fertility and alkaline soils[200]. Established plants are tolerant of considerable neglect, thriving and even self-sowing in dense weed growth[K]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]." [PFAF]

"Seed - sow April in a cold frame. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out into their permanent positions in the summer. Division in autumn. Very easy, larger clumps can be replanted direct into their permanent positions, though it is best to pot up smaller clumps and grow them on in a cold frame until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the summer or following spring. This should be done at least once every three years in order to maintain the vigour of the plant. Basal cuttings in spring. Harvest the shoots when they are about 10 - 15cm long with plenty of underground stem. Pot them up into individual pots and keep them in light shade in a cold frame or greenhouse until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the summer." [PFAF]

References

Image References

Centaurea nigrescens - short-fringed knapweed

Centaurea nigrescens subsp. nigrescens bgiu [1]
Centaurea nigrescens

Centaurea nigrescens Willd. - "The native range of this species is Europe. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

Centaurea pratensis Thuill. - Meadow knapweed
"Meadow knapweed is native to Europe and is now common in British Columbia, Oregon and northern California. It infests roadsides, waste areas, fields and pastures." [WeedsW]

"General: Perennial herb from a taproot; stems erect, branched, glabrous or somewhat sparsely long-hairy, 0.4-1.0 m tall." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Leaves: Basal leaves oblanceolate to elliptic, base tapering into the stalk, deeply to shallowly lobed or irregularly pinnately cut, glabrous or often lightly hairy below, up to 15 cm long and 3 cm wide; stem leaves lanceolate, unstalked, reduced upwards." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Habitat / Range Mesic roadsides and fields in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC (Saanich Peninsula, Vancouver Island) and SC BC (Mara Lake area); introduced from Europe." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Centaurea nigrescens Willdenow, Tyrol Knapweed, Short-fringed Knapweed. Mt (VA, WV), Pd (DE, VA): roadsides, disturbed areas; uncommon (rare in DE and VA), native of Europe. July-October. This species is increasing rapidly in the n. VA Piedmont. C. transalpina Schleicher ex de Candolle was also reported for VA by Kartesz (1999). [= FNA; = C. dubia Suter – C, SE, W (not a valid name); > C. vochinensis Bernhardi ex Reichenbach – F; > C. dubia ssp. vochinensis (Berhardi ex Reichenbach) Hayek – G; > C. nigrescens – K; > C. transalpina Schleicher ex de Candolle – F, K]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Synonyms

References

Image References

Centaurea stoebe - spotted knapweed

Spotted Knapweed ''Centaurea stoebe'', Polk County, Minnesota, USA [1]
Centaurea stoebe 		spotted knapweed [2]
Centaurea stoebe 		Centaurea stoebe subsp. stoebe sl34 [3]
Centaurea stoebe

Centaurea stoebe L. - "The native range of this species is Europe to Central Asia and Caucasus. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"General: Biennial or sometimes perennial herb from a taproot; stems erect, ridged, laxly branched, 0.2-1.8 m tall." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Leaves: Basal leaves pinnately cut, linear, stalked; stem leaves becoming reduced and unstalked above." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Notes: This species is sometimes difficult to separate from the closely related C. paniculata. The latter, however, has much stiffer, divergent branches that are often again branched with narrower heads." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Habitat / Range Dry roadsides and fields in the steppe and montane zones; frequent in S BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; introduced from Eurasia." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Centaurea stoebe Linnaeus ssp. micranthos (S.G. Gmelin ex Gugler) Hayek, Spotted Knapweed, Bushy Knapweed. Mt (NC, SC, VA, WV), Pd (NC, SC, VA), Cp (DE, FL, VA): roadsides, disturbed areas; common (rare in FL and SC), native of Europe. Late June-November. [= FNA, WH; = Centaurea biebersteinii A.P. de Candolle – K; = C. maculosa Lamarck – RAB, C, F, G, SE, W, misapplied]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

[Verma AER] [Verma AER]

"Centaurea stoebe is an invasive forb in North America. The presence of Alternaria endophyte enhances its competitive ability without increasing its size. The mechanism by which the endophyte increases its host competiveness is unknown, but it is not related to increased growth (Aschehoug et al. 2012)." [Verma AER]

Centaurea biebersteinii (Centaurea maculosa, Centaurea stoebe)
"Grows along roads, in light soils with some summer rain, below 6000 ft. Common invasive weed. Similar but shorter, diffuse knapweed, C. dilfusa, has smaller, white to very pale pink flowers and fringed bracts with sharp points that turn outward. Nonnative" [WildPNW]

"Similarly, Centaurea stoebe reduces AMF diversity and abundance (Mummey and Rillig 2006) and has stronger effects on soil communities in North America where it is invasive compared to its native range in Europe (Thorpe and Callaway 2010). Unlike Amaranthus and Alliaria, Centaurea does utilize mycorrhizal associations during invasion. Thus, reducing the abundance of AMF is not a strategy only for non-mycorrhizal plants, but can be beneficial for mycorrhizal invaders as well. Even invaders with a similar level of mycorrhizal dependence to natives can cause this type of AMF-mediated feedback. When the AMF which are promoted by the invasive species are not as beneficial to resident native competitors, the AMF community promotes further invasion by limiting the growth of native competitors (Vogelsang and Bever 2009; Wilson et al. 2012)." [Dighton IIS]

References

Image References

Centaurea x moncktonii - meadow knapweed

Centaurea × gerstlaueri Erdner - "The native range of this hybrid is Europe. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome. The hybrid formula is C. jacea × C. nigra." [POWO]

Centaurea x moncktonii p1326 [1]
Centaurea x moncktonii 		Centaurea x moncktonii p1329 [2]
Centaurea x moncktonii

"General: Perennial herb from a taproot; stems erect, branched, thinly hairy, 40-80 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Leaves: Basal leaves oblanceolate to lanceolate, simple to irregularly pinnately cut or with a wavy margin, sparsely long-hairy above, long-hairy below, soon deciduous; stem leaves similar, reduced upwards." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Habitat / Range Mesic to dry fields and waste places in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; infrequent in S BC south of 56degreeN; introduced from Europe." [IFBC-E-flora]

"Centaurea ×moncktonii C.E. Britton, Meadow Knapweed. Mt (VA), Pd (VA): roadsides, disturbed areas; rare, native of Europe. July-October. [= FNA; = C. ×pratensis Thuillier – C; ? C. nigra var. radiata A.P. de Candolle – F; ? C. debeauxii Godron & Grenier ssp. thuillieri Dostál]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Status: Exotic [E-flora]

Synonyms

References

Image References

Non-local Species

[Thormar LEOAA] [Thormar LEOAA]

"Centaurea aegialophila is a hemicryptophyte of coastal dunes in southern Turkey. In summer, hairy aboveground portions become dry, and then die. It has a thick root and a short stem which produces a basal leaf rosette. If sand covers the plant, the short stem elongates and brings the renewal buds to their proper place in relation to the soil surface. Additional sand cover will, after a year or more, induce another such elongation. After deflation, exposed roots produce thick, corky bark, in contrast to that of buried roots which are smooth." [Danin PDD]

Centaurea acaulis

Centaurea acaulis 293018413 [1]
Centaurea acaulis 		Centaurea acaulis 293018805 [2]
Centaurea acaulis 		Centaurea acaulis 293018970 [3]
Centaurea acaulis

Habitat/Range: Centaurea acaulis L. - "The native range of this species is Algeria to Tunisia. It grows primarily in the subtropical biome." [POWO] Mediterranean coasts. [Sturtevant EPW]

Synonyms: Centaurea chamaerhaponticum Ball = "This name is a synonym of Centaurea acaulis"" [POWO]

Edible Use

Centaurea chamaerhaponticum Ball.; "In Algeria, according to Desfontaenes, the root is edible and not unpleasant to the taste." [Sturtevant EPW]

Phytochemicals

Methyl eugenol - Centaurea chamaerhaponticum - Antibacterial Activity Against vs E. coli, Salmonella ser. Typhimurium, S. aureus, S. epidermidis - [34] [Rai FMDR]

"Centaurea chamaerhaponticum Ball is one of the most conspicuous early spring flowering aromatic plants of the Centaurea genus. It is a North African endemic species distributed throughout the north and central area of Tunisia. The chemical composition of the volatile fractions obtained by steam distillation from the capitula and aerial parts of this plant was analyzed by GC-MS [34]. Of the 57 constituents identified, representing 95.5% and 96.3% of the two oils, respectively, the main components were methyl eugenol (Fig. 14-6), epi-13-manool, b-ionone, b-bisabolol, 1-octadecanol, phytol, and farnesyl acetate. Oils from both parts of C. chamaerhaponticum, and especially that of capitula, were found to exhibit interesting antibacterial activities against S. aureus (MIC and MBC of 500e800 mg/mL), S. epidermidis NCIMB 8853 (National Collection of Industrial Marine & Food Bacteria, Tunisia; MIC and MBC of 800 mg/mL), clinical isolates of Salmonella ser. Typhimurium (MIC of 500 mg/mL), and E. coli (MIC of 800 mg/mL). The antibacterial properties of the volatile fractions of this plant are thought to be associated with the high content of oxygenated sesquiterpenes. The bacteriostatic activity of the EO is thought to relate to the chemical configuration of its components, the proportions in which they are present, and the interactions between them. The EO from the root of another Centaurea species, Centaurea carthamoides L.[Not Accepted sp], also exhibited antimicrobial activity against S. aureus (MIC of 32 mg/mL), L. monocytogenes (MIC of 128 mg/ mL), and S. pyogenes (MIC of 256 mg/mL) [52]. Aplotaxene, cyperene, and the norsesquiterpene, 13-norcypera-1(5),11,(12)-diene, were isolated and identified. Other EOs of the Centaurea genus with antimicrobial activity include the oils extracted from Centaurea pulcherrima Willd. var. pulcherrima[Not Accepted sp[POWO]] by hydrodistillation and microwave distillation [53]." [Rai FMDR]

Note: [POWO] Centaurea pulcherrima Willd. - "This name is a synonym of Psephellus pulcherrimus" [POWO]

Image References

Centaurea ainetensis Boiss.

Centaurea ainetensis Boiss. - "The native range of this species is Syria to Lebanon (Antilebanon)." [POWO]

Medicinal Use

"Middle Eastern: Qanturyun aynata/shawk al-dardar (C. ainetensis), Qantaryun (C. erengoides) Several Centaurea species are used in Turkish folk medicine to alleviate pain and inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis, high fever, and headache. " [IPM]

Pharmacology

"Anti-inflammatory: C. ainetensis, a plant endemie to Lebanon and used by Middie Eastern herbalists, contains bioactive compounds that have shown in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory and analgesie actions." [IPM]

"Anticancer: C. ainetensis has also shown that its extract and its bioactive molecule, salograviolide-A, can inhibit the proliferation of human colon cancer cells without harming the epithelial host cells. The sesquiterpene lactones from the aboveground parts of different Centaurea species have also displayed in vitro cytotoxiclcytostatie activity against at least three human celllines." [IPM]

Various Animal Studies

"In fact a recent study in our laboratory has identified an active sesquiterpene lactone guaianolide (Salograviolide A) from Centaurea ainetensis that inhibited interleukin-1 (IL-1) induced cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) via an NF-κB dependant pathway in intestinal epithelial cells, and decreased inflammatory cytokines in vivo in a rodent IBD animal model (Al-Saghir et al. 2009)." [Rai FMDR]

"Extracts from Onopordum cynarocephalum and Achillea damascena as well as Centaurea ainetensis reduced the endotoxin-induced inflammatory phenotype of the mammary cells without affecting β-casein levels (Talhouk et al. 2008, 2009). Salograviolide A, in the case of Centaurea ainetensis, was identified as the culprit in inhibiting the ET-induced IL-6 in mammary epithelial cells (Saliba et al. 2009)." [Rai FMDR]

Centaurea alexandrina Delile - "The native range of this species is Mali, Chad, Libya to NW. Egypt." [POWO]

Centaurea alexandrina Q 3,7-bissulphate [Sulphated flavonoid] Mansour et al. (1988)[Bohm FSF]

Centaurea amanicola Hub.-Mor. - "The native range of this species is S. Türkiye (Osmaniye). It is a biennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

Centaurea armena Boiss. - "The native range of this species is Türkiye to S. Transcaucasus." [POWO]

Centaurea aspera L.

"The native range of this species is SW. Europe to W. & Central Medit. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

Centaurea aspera L. - " Inflorescences, peeled and stewed; aerial part for making liqueur (ratafia)" (Spring) [Tardio,2006]

Centaurea behen L.

Centaurea behen L. - "The native range of this species is E. Medit. to Turkmenistan and Iran. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

Ayurvedic Subtitutes for Ashtavarga herbs - Used "In place of Jivak: Tinospora spp. or Centaurea behen" [Puri AHLP]

"Ayurveda: Behman Safed (C. behen), white rhapontic root. Classically, Centaurea behen is used to treat weakness of brain, heart, and liver, palpitation, hepatitis, melancholia, sexual debility, neurasthe- nia, spermatorrhoea, fatigue, and for diseases of the stomach and intes- tines. C. picris is used as a powdered herb in treatment of worms, and for livestock wounds." [IPM]

Centaurea benedicta - Holy thistle

Centaurea benedicta - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-043 [1]
Cnicus benedictus (Syn) 		Centaurea benedicta - Jardin des Plantes [2]
Centaurea benedicta

"The native range of this species is Europe to Xinjiang. It is an annual and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [PWO]

Synonyms: Cnicus benedictus L. = "This name is a synonym of Centaurea benedicta"[PWO]

"Centaurea benedicta (Linnaeus) Linnaeus, Blessed-thistle. Pd (GA, NC, SC, VA), Cp (FL, GA, NC, SC, VA), Mt (VA): fields, roadsides, disturbed areas; uncommon (rare in FL), native of Mediterranean Europe. Late March-June. [= RAB, FNA; = Cnicus benedictus Linnaeus – C, F, G, K, S, SE, W, WH]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Medicinal Use

Tonic

Centaurea benedicta (L.) L.(Asteraceae) - Holy thistle - Whole plant - Topically [Kuete TSAMP]

Centaurea benedicta (L.) L. - Eupeptic - Flower heads, Leaves [Tagarelli et al.,2010]

"The small, modest blessed or holy thistle (Centaurea benedicta) was highly thought of in medieval and Tudor times as a virtual panacea, especially during times of plague. Contemporary herbal authors of the period encouraged home gardeners to grow it as a general tonic and for new mothers to increase milk production during nursing. The herb is still used today, usually in the form of a bitter tea or tincture to stimulate the gallbladder, appetite, and digestion and to treat a sick stomach. The essential oil shows antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, though moderation is key since overuse can lead to vomiting (the herb was taken for medicinal purging in the past)." [NAH Orr]

"Artichokes and cardoons are often called thistles, but a close relative actually goes by the name blessed thistle, or Centaurea benedicta. The two foot- tall, yellow-flowered herb resembles a hairy dandelion—and like dandelions, it is both weedy and bitter. All parts of the plants are used in digestive tonics, vermouths, and herbal liqueurs; the active ingredient seems to be a compound called cnicin, which is being evaluated for its anti-tumor properties." [Stewart TDB]

Image References

Centaurea borysthenica Gruner - "The native range of this species is Hungary to N. Balkan Peninsula and European Russia." [POWO]

Centaurea bracteata

synonym of;

"Two new sulfated flavonols recorded from Centaurea bracteata are quercetin 3-glucoside-3’-sulfate and quercetagetin (6-hydroxyquercetin) 3,6-dimethyl ether 7-sulfate" [Andersen FCBA]

"Centaurea bracteata Scop. [Asteraceae]. Mixed with C. calcitrapa is anti-tussive and a diuretic [29]. The chemical compounds are similar to those of Centaurea pratensis." [Guarrera et al.,2007]

"Respiratory system — Centaurea bracteata: the infusion of flower heads is considered antitussive." [Guarrera,2005]

References

Centaurea calcitrapa L.- Purple Star-thistle

Centaurea calcitrapa [1]
Centaurea calcitrapa 		Centaurea calcitrapa 001 [2]
Centaurea calcitrapa — Flora Batava — Volume v2 [3]

Centaurea calcitrapa L. - "The native range of this species is Macaronesia, Medit. to Iran and Arabian Peninsula. It is a biennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea calcitrapa Linnaeus, Purple Star-thistle, Caltrops. Mt, Cp, Pd (VA): roadsides, disturbed areas; rare, native of Europe. June-September. [= C, F, FNA, G, K, S, SE]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Edible Use

"Centaurea calcitrapa Linn. Compositae. CALTROPS. STAR THISTLE. Europe, north Africa and temperate Asia. The young stems and leaves, according to Forskal, are eaten raw in Egypt." [Sturtevant EPW]

"Centaurea calcitrapa L., for instance, has been appreciated [as a food] since the time of the Greeks...." [Lentini & Veza,2007]

"Among all the edibles, four endemic species of Cyprus were recorded. The presence of endemic species illustrates the fact that the informants have a deep knowledge of their environment, since the three of them are not very abundant and can be found only in certain areas. For example, the endemic subspecies Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica and Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps are used only from the inhabitants of specific villages in Paphos...." [Della et al.,2006]

"Among the recorded plants thistles are very popular as wild edibles of Cyprus. The young stems of 16 wild plants are used. Eight of them are used in both sites (Centaurea hyalolepis, ..., while seven of them are used exclusively in Paphos site (Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps, .... These plants can be gathered from January to March, and their young stems, cleaned of spines, are used in most cases boiled with legumes or fried." [Della et al.,2006]

Centaurea calcitrapa L. - Basal leaves and tender stems, stewed" (Spring) [Tardio,2006]

"According to The Encyclopedia of Edible Plants, the young shoots of C. calcitrapa and other species have been eaten as food in Europe, Asia, and Africa." [IPM]

Medicinal Use

"Western botanical: Eclectic practitioners considered the virtues of star thistle (C. calcitrapa) to be similar to those of blessed thistle (Cnicus benedictus), which was valued for its treatment in intermittent diseases, inflammation, fever, hepatitis, jaundice, arthritis, epilepsy, and externally for shingles outbreak. Other sources compare it to gentian in its use as a bitter tonic to improve digestion and to treat jaundice, fever, skin outbreaks, and infection." [IPM]

Pharamacology

Centaurea calcitrapa - External antiseptic - Bath [Rigat,2015]

"Measured levels of antioxidant properties in C. calcitrapa are given in Fig. 8.7, which revealed that percentage levels of DPPH scavenging activity, OH- radical scavenging activity, H2O2 radical scavenging activity, and Fe2+ chelating activity were comparatively higher in the water extracts than corresponding acetone extracts. However, total antioxidant activity in terms of FRAP and PM complex assays, articulated as μM GAE/100 g and μM AA/100 g, on fresh weight basis were found significantly high in acetone extracts than water extracts." [Abbasi WEVLH]

[Abbasi WEVLH]

Phytochemicals

"Phytochemical contents of C. calcitrapa are given in Fig. 7.7, which shows that water extract of fresh edible leaves exhibited higher concentration of total phenolic contents (mg GAE/100 g, FW) as compared to acetone extract. Similarly flavonoid and flavonol contents (mg Rt/100 g, FW) were also measured higher in water extracts as compared to acetone extracts on fresh weight basis. However, acetone extract showed moderately higher value of ascorbic acid contents (mg AA/100 g, FW) as compared to the water extract on fresh weight basis." [Abbasi WEVLH]

[Abbasi WEVLH]

Centaurea calcitropa [C. calitrapa?] Chalcone [B-ring deoxyflavonoid] [Bohm FSF]

"Red star thistle (C. calcitrapa)-apigenin, arachidic acid, astrag- alin, behinic acid, b- amyrin, B-sitosterol, centaurin, choline, cichoriin, cniciin, inulin, lignoceric acid, linoleic acid, myristic acid, naringenin, oleic acid, palmitic acid, pectin, quercetin, rutin, scabiolide, stearic acid, stizolophine" [IPM]

Nutritional

Centaurea calcitrapa L.
"Fresh weight basis: Moisture content 83.12 %, dry matter contents 16.89 %. Dry weight basis: Carbohydrates 39.68 %, crude proteins 32.34 %, crude fats 3.435 %, crude fibers 10.00 %, ash content 14.54 %, Energy value 319.0 Kcal/ 100 g." [Abbasi WEVLH]

Centaurea consanguinea DC.

Centaurea consanguinea DC. - "The native range of this species is Türkiye." [POWO]

Image References

References

  • [Della et al.,2006] Della, Athena, Demetra Paraskeva-Hadjichambi, and Andreas Ch Hadjichambis. "An ethnobotanical survey of wild edible plants of Paphos and Larnaca countryside of Cyprus." Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine 2 (2006): 1-9.
  • [Lentini & Veza,2007] Lentini, Francesca, and Francesca Venza. "Wild food plants of popular use in Sicily." Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3 (2007): 1-12.
  • [Rigat,2015] Rigat, Montse, et al. "Plants with topical uses in the Ripollès district (Pyrenees, Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula): ethnobotanical survey and pharmacological validation in the literature." Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015): 162-179.
  • [Tardio,2006] Tardío, Javier, Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana, and Ramón Morales. "Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants in Spain." Botanical journal of the Linnean society 152.1 (2006): 27-71.

Centaurea depressa M. Bieb. - Low cornflower, Iranian knapweed

Centaurea depressa [1]
Centaurea depressa 		Centaurea depressa - Flickr - brewbooks [2]
Centaurea depressa

Centaurea depressa M.Bieb. - "The native range of this species is Türkiye to Central Asia and W. Himalaya. It is an annual and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

Centaurea depressa M.Bieb.- Whole plant - Chest pain, fever, headache, stomach disorders, cold, cough - Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Chaurasia et al., 2007 [Pullaiah EOI]

[Tardio MWEP] [Tardio MWEP]

"Distribution: All of Uzbekistan; Chuy, Talas, Osh and Jalal-Abad provinces of Kyrgyzstan." [Eisenman MPCA]
Habitat: The adyr and tau zones. Clay-soiled slopes with rocky debris. Often occurs as a weed in wheat fields." [Eisenman MPCA]

"Traditional use: A decoction of the flowers is used for melancholy, neurasthenia, eye diseases, and as a cholagogue for hepatitis (Khalmatov 1964)." [Eisenman MPCA]

"Documented effects: An extract of the aboveground parts had antibacterial effects against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Fazly Bazzaz and Haririzadeh 2003; Arif et al. 2004). A hexane extract of the plant showed antifungal activity against Candida krusei (Karamenderes et al. 2006)." [Eisenman MPCA]

"Phytochemistry: The herb contains flavonoids, phenolic compounds and small amounts of alkaloids (Khalmatov 1964; Bandyukova et al. 1969; Hosseinimehr et al. 2007). The main components of the essential oil isolated from plants in Iran, were piperitone and elemol (Esmaeili et al. 2005)." [Eisenman MPCA]

"Synonyms: Cyanus depressus (M. Bieb.) Soják." [Eisenman MPCA]

Image References

Centaurea hierapolitana Boiss.

Centaurea hierapolitana Boiss. "The native range of this species is Türkiye." [POWO]

Centaurea hierapolitana - Kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside [Montano,2011]

References

Centaurea hyalolepis Boiss.

Centaurea hyalolepis Boiss. - "The native range of this species is NW. Africa, E. Medit. to Iran and Arabian Peninsula. It is an annual or biennial and grows primarily in the subtropical biome." [POWO]

Edible Use

"The food utilization of Centaurea hyalolepis, has been reported by 18 informants" [Della et al.,2006]

"The most popular plants used as boiled are: Centaurea hyalolepis,..." [Della et al.,2006]

References

Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex Spreng.

Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex Spreng. - "The native range of this species is SE. & E. Europe to Xinjiang and W. Himalaya. It is an annual or biennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

Centaurea iberica Trev. ex Spreng. - Iberian starthistle;
"Introduced from Europe, this species was reported abundant in California in the early 1950s in some counties. It has been reported in several western US. states. Purple starthistle (c. calcitrapa L.) closely resembles Iberian starthistle. Mature seed heads are needed to distinguish between the two species. If these species are found, inform your County Extension Service or Weed Control Districts of their location." [WeedsW]

Centaurea iberica Trev. ex Spreng. - Leaves - Vegetable - Srivastava, 1988 [Pullaiah EOI]

Centaurea iberica Trevir. Heads, - leaves - Eczema, eyesight, lactation, burns, skin rashes - Dar et al., 1984; Lone et al., 2013a; Beigh et al., 2003[Pullaiah EOI]

Centaurea iberica Trev. Ex. Spreng. -Asia; Europe - Invasive - 62% root length colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizas [Shah,2009]

References

Centaurea jacea L. - Rayed knapweed

Centaurea jacea L. - "The native range of this species is Europe to W. Siberia and Caucasus. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea jacea Linnaeus, Brown Knapweed. Mt (NC, VA, WV), Pd (DE, VA), Cp (DE): roadsides, disturbed areas; uncommon (rare south of DE), native of Europe. June-September. This species is increasing rapidly in the VA Ridge and Valley. Reported for Alleghany County, NC (D. Poindexter, pers. comm. 2009). [= C, F, FNA, G, K, SE; = Jacea pratensis Lamarck]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Dye Plant: "Centaurea jacea L. - Rayed knapweed - 1.0 TKW (g)a - Whole plant - Yellow" (a) Weight of a thousand seeds. (b) With alum as mordant (except blue). [Bechtold HNC]

Synonyms

Centaurea maculosa

This sp. is a synonym for C. stoebe or C. cuneifolia

Note: I did not merge this with its respective species because some entries do not specify the taxonomical origin. Reader discretion is advised. [Personal Obervation]

Centaurea maculosa Lam.;
"HABITAT: Spotted knapweed is an increasingly important weed of rangeland and pastures) generally on low-fertility) dry soils. It is also weed of low-maintenance turfgrass) roadsides) and) less commonly) landscapes) nurseries) and agricultural crops.
DISTRIBUTION: Spotted knapweed continues to spread and is now found throughout the northeastern and north-central states but is most common in the Rocky Mountain states and the Pacific Northwest." [WeedsNE]

Centaurea maculosa Lam.;
"Spotted knapweed, which was introduced from Eurasia as a contaminant of alfalfa and clover seed, ranks as the number one weed problem on rangeland in western rvlontana. Other areas in the region are experiencing a reduction in desirable plant communities as this species is allowed to spread. Knapweeds readily establish themselves on any disturbed soil, and their early spring growth makes them competitive for soil moisture and nutrients. There is some evidence that knapweeds release chemical substances which inhibit surrounding vegetation. The flowering period extends from June to October." [WeedsW]

Insecticide: "Vulgarone B (isolated from Artemisia douglasiana; Asteraceae), apiol (isolated from Ligusticum hultenii; Apiaceae), and cnicin (isolated from Centaurea maculosa; Asteraceae) cause significant mortality to Formosan subterranean termites in laboratory bioassays48". [IKAN STCNP]

Taxonomy

"A somewhat similar situation exists with regard to the introduced material of spotted knapweed in Canada. This is all referred by Moore and Frankton (1974) and others to Centaurea maculosa Lam., but plants of spotted knapweed from British Columbia have been called C. rhenana Boreau by those working on biological control of knapweed in Australia (p. Harris, in litt.). Moore and Frankton included C. rhenana within C. maculosa, but Dostal (1976) distinguishes it and several other species in his account of the genus in Flora Europaea. Indeed his whole section Maculosae, with 13 species and 13 subspecies, is probably equivalent to the C. maculosa of North American authors, although only a few of the European taxa will have become established as weeds in North America." [Holzner BEW]

Cultivation & Propagation

Influence of Plants on Soil P Concentration: "Thus, plants have a range of possibilities to influence the total P pool and the availability of P directly or via symbionts. The influence of plant species on P concentration can be seen clearly in cases of invasive species. These have in several studies been shown to affect P turnover rates. For example, Centaurea maculosa, an invasive forb in Montana grasslands, was more efficient in P uptake than native species, but also apparently increased P availability in invaded fields (Thorpe et al. 2006)." [Lichtfouse SAR 3]

Weediness

"Centaurea maculosa Lam. (spotted knapweed) originated in Eurasia but is an invasive weed in North America. This weed has taken over millions of hectares of natural Palouse prairie land, thus adversely affecting plant diversity [16]. Ridenour and Callaway r1 7] investigated the relative importance of allelopathy in explaining the interference potential of spotted knapweed with respect to the native bunchgrass Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis Elmer.). ...The authors found evidence for allelopathic suppression of Idaho fescue and a negative correlation between abundance of spotted knapweed and abundance of Idaho fescue. A significant decrease in root growth of Idaho fescue was observed whether it was in contact with spotted knapweed or not (Idaho fescue roots grew in the rhizosphere zone of spotted knapweed but did not have physical contact).... The observed decrease in root growth of Idaho fescue, however, was less in presence of activated charcoal for both contact and non-contact roots. In one experiment, these authors found that Idaho fescue grown with knapweed were 85% shorter compared to situation when activated carbon was used. These findings support the contention that allelopathy is involved in the invasiveness of spotted knapweed." [Mallik CEP]

"Using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP), Mummey et al. (2005) showed that AM fungal communities within the roots of the grass species Dactylis glomerata that had been growing next to the invasive exotic plant Centaurea maculosa were different in composition compared to roots growing without neighboring C. maculosa roots. Although the exact mechanisms to explain this observation remain untested, alteration of the local rooting environment through resource uptake or exudation of secondary compound by the roots of one species could change the environment surrounding a root and could select for certain AM fungal species." [Azcon-Aguilar MFPEI]

"Centaurea maculosa, a perennial forb native to Eurasia, is a highly invasive weed in North American grasslands [28]. The competitive success of C. maculosa in North America may be mediated in part by root exudation of a phytotoxin that reduces the growth and survival of North American grassland species [24,25,29–31]. C. maculosa roots exude a racemic mixture of (+)- catechin and (−)-catechin (Figure 11.2). Both enantiomers are phytotoxic, although (−)-catechin is substantially more potent than (+)-catechin [24,32]. Treatment of susceptible plants with (−)- catechin or the racemic mixture, (±)-catechin, in vitro inhibits root elongation, can result in plant mortality, particularly among dicots, and can reduce shoot length and germination [24,25,30,31]. Perry et al. [31] found that (±)-catechin treatment inhibited root elongation of 13 out of 20 native North American grassland species examined, suggesting that C. maculosa (±)-catechin production may contribute to C. maculosa invasions of North American grasslands." [Pinton TR]

"Bais et al. (2003) present evidence that Centaurea maculosa, an invasive species in the western USA, displaces native plant species by exuding the phytotoxin (−)-catechin from its roots. This allelochemical triggers a wave of reactive oxygen species initiated at the root meristem, which leads to a Ca2+ signaling cascade triggering genome-wide changes in gene expression and, ultimately, death of the root system. Resistance to allelochemicals is largely accomplished through detoxification pathways that involve the modification, followed by the secretion or the vacuolar sequestration, of xenobiotics. In addition to affecting the soil microorganisms responsible for nutrient mineralization, phenolic compounds can alter nitrogen availability by complexing proteins." [Lattanzio RAPR]

Catechin

"One potent allelopathic flavonoid called catechin is produced by the roots of spotted knapweed (Centaurea biebersteinii syn. C. maculosa). Catechin has two mirror image forms, a positive (+) form and a negative (-) form. The +catechin is an antibiotic and antioxidant that prevents the formation of free radicals. It is present in a number of plants, including green tea (Camellia sinensis). The -catechin induces oxidation and cellular death in root cells of neighboring plants. Although the mechanism is complex, -catechin is a potent phytotoxin that causes plants to self destruct by producing free radicals as well as triggering genes that kill the cells. Cellular death may occur within an hour of exposure to catechin. See the following reference for more details: H.P. Bais, R. Vepachedu, S. Gilroy, R.M. Callaway and J.M. Vivanco. 2003. "Allelopathy and Exotic Plant Invasion: From Molecules and Genes to Species Interactions." Science 301: 1377-1380 (September 5, 2003)." [Chemid2]

"The Asian native Centaurea maculosa (spotted knapweed) has displaced native weeds and crops throughout the western United States. Contributing to the invasiveness of this exotic is the secretion of the phytotoxic trans-flavan-3-ol (-)-catechin from its roots (Bais et al., 2002).... Both enantiomers of catechin are present in root exudates of C. maculosa; however, only (-)-catechin had allelopathic (phytotoxic) activity. Interestingly, (+)-catechin (but not (-)-catechin) displayed antibacterial activity against several root pathogens, which suggests that secretion of a racemic mixture may simultaneously protect C. maculosa roots against microbial pathogens and weaken roots of neighboring plants (Bais et al., 2002). When the phytotoxicity of catechin was examined in more detail, only the (-)- enantiomer elicited generation of reactive oxygen species and calcium-signaling events in roots of susceptible species (Bais et al., 2003a). Additional studies with the cis-flavan-3-ols (+)-epicatechin and (-)-epicatechin showed that (+)-epicatechin, like (-)-catechin, inhibited root and shoot differentiation and seed germination of several of the plants examined, while (-)-epicatechin did not show inhibition (Bais et al., 2003b). Both (-)-catechin and (+)-epicatechin are of the 2S configuration, which suggests that the stereochemistry at C-2 is important for allelopathic activity. Interestingly, (+)-epicatechin also was effective at inhibiting C. maculosa, which is resistant to (-)-catechin (Bais et al., 2003b)." [Grotewold TSF]

"Efforts to quantify (±)-catechin production have yielded mixed results. Early studies indicated that young Centaurea maculosa plants grown at high densities in vitro could produce as much as 80 µg ml−1 of (±)-catechin [24]. In contrast, in a more recent study, C. maculosa plants grown individually in vitro produced a maximum of 2.5 µg ml−1 of (±)-catechin [33]. Further, several studies have reported very high soil (±)-catechin concentrations (> 1 mg g−1) in well-established field populations of C. maculosa [24,25,34]. However, one recent study failed to detect any (±)-catechin in soil in two C. maculosa populations [33], and another study that included a wide range of sites sampled on a number of dates, detected soil (±)-catechin in only one site and on only one sampling date (L.G. Perry, unpublished data). The reasons for these differences in results among studies are uncertain. All studies to date of soil (±)-catechin concentrations have examined bulk soil rather than rhizosphere soil, and therefore they may not have evaluated (±)- catechin concentrations under the most relevant circumstances (see Chapter 1). A better under- standing of (±)-catechin dynamics in the rhizosphere is needed to evaluate whether and when (±)-catechin is present at sufficient concentrations in root–root interactions to influence C. maculosa’s neighbors." [Pinton TR]

"Recent studies have also suggested that plants may rapidly evolve partial resistance to novel phytotoxic allamones following invasions by allelopathic exotic species. Callaway et al. [58] found that offspring from populations of North American grasses that had experienced Centaurea mac- ulosa invasion were less inhibited by interactions with C. maculosa than offspring from populations of North American grasses that had not encountered C. maculosa. Although Callaway et al. [58] did not attempt to rule out maternal effects as a cause of this trend, their results suggest that North American grasses may be evolving resistance to C. maculosa allelopathic interference." [Pinton TR]

"Very high concentrations of (±)-catechin, the phytotoxic root exudate produced by C. maculosa, inhibit C. maculosa seedling root elongation by as much as 75% [34]. Provided that (±)-catechin is held in solution at high concentrations, it also induces C. maculosa seed dormancy, reducing seed germination by as much as 50%." [Pinton TR]

"...there is evidence to suggest that autoinhibition influences Centaurea maculosa population dynamics [34]. In well-established C. maculosa populations in North America, C. maculosa adults are often widely spaced, separated by unoccupied space or by a few small seedlings. Perry et al. [34] found that adding activated carbon, which adsorbs organic compounds, to soil around adult C. maculosa plants in the field increases C. maculosa seedling density, suggesting that autoinhibition is one of the factors that limits C. maculosa seedling establishment in established populations. Whether (±)-catechin concentrations in C. maculosa populations are sufficiently high to explain these field results is uncertain. Early measurements of soil (±)-catechin suggested that (±)-catechin concentrations could be very large [25,71], but more recent studies have been unable to repeat these results (L. G. Perry, unpublished data) [33]. (±)-Catechin in the rhizosphere may still be responsible for C. maculosa autoinhibition but may not be detectable in bulk soil, or a different compound may be responsible for C. maculosa autoinhibition." [Pinton TR]

"Excretion of (-)-catechin by Centaurea maculosa, knapweed, exhibits negative root-root communication (Veluri et al. 2004; Walker et al. 2003). However, (+)-catechin was inhibitory to soil-borne bacteria. A mixture of the two compounds is excreted from the plant roots (Veluri et al. 2004). The biosynthetic process leading to formation of (-)-catechin is not known." [Reigosa Alleleopathy]

" For example, (-)-catechin, a rare metabolic product so far only found elsewhere in the bark of cotton plants and produced via the flavinoid pathway, appears to be the weapon of choice for C. maculosa (Bais et al. 2002; 2003). Centaurea diffusa, on the other hand, wields 8-hydroxyquinoline, a compound not previously described as a natural metabolic product (Vivanco et al. in review)." [Reigosa Alleleopathy]

"(-)-Catechin, kaempferol, and dihydroquercetin in root exudates from the invasive species Centaurea maculosa can trigger a wave of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and subsequent Ca2+ signalling, leading to root death in sensitive plant species (Bais et al., 2003a, 2003b)." [Grotewold TSF]

Pathogens

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (fungus) "In examining the fungus for control of Canada thistle {Cirsium arvense) and spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), high levels of plant mortality were achieved using wild-type strains. Generation of mutants yielded pyrimidine-dependent auxotrophs, nonsclerotia-forming mutants, and reduced host range/reduced virulence mutants. The auxotrophic and nonsclerotia-forming mutants are extremely limited in their ability to spread from the point of infection, do not survive adverse environmental conditions, and in the case of the auxotrophic mutants, are dependent upon an exogenous nutrient source. These characteristics could make it possible to use this typically broad host range fungus for the control of weeds without endangering susceptible crops." [Khachatourians AMB2]

"The demonstrated failure of insect agents alone to reduce biomass of the perennial weed Centaurea maculosa Lam. in controlled studies [190] along with the finding that one or more plant pathogens such as Fusarium spp. are associated with unthrifty, insect-damaged plants in foreign [97] and domestic stands of C maculosa (Caesar, unpublished) further illuminates this point. Lessons learned in both insect-centered approaches and pathogen-based programs provide cautionary ideas and at the same time illustrate the need for basing future work on a more thorough examination of the ecology of the factors that apparently limit the weediness of a target species as called for recently [107]." [Khachatourians AMB2]

References

Centaurea melitensis L.

"The native range of this species is Macaronesia, Medit. It is an annual and grows primarily in the subtropical biome." [POWO]

Centaurea melitensis L. - Maltese Star Thistle - Mahuna Drug, Kidney Aid - Plant used for the kidneys.(Romero,John)[BRIT]

"Centaurea melitensis Linnaeus, Maltese Star-thistle. Cp (GA, SC): waste areas near wool-combing mill, roadsides, disturbed areas; rare, native of Mediterranean Europe. June-September. [= C, F, FNA, G, K, S, SE]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Centaurea napifolia L.

"The native range of this species is W. & Central Medit." [POWO]

Edible Use

Centaurea napifolia L. , C. sphaerocephala L. – Food use - Plants, peeled from thorns, were eaten cooked in Southern Italy [Passalacqua et al.,2006]

"Almost all the described species are still employed nowadays in Calabria, except for the more thorny species (Centaurea sp. pl.)." [Passalacqua et al.,2006]

"Some thorny plants (Carduae, e.g. Silybum marianum) are eaten also in the near Basilicata region [15,26], while the food use of Centaurea napifolia, C. sphaerocephala and Spartium junceum pickled buds, not cited elsewhere, is probably linked with the extreme poverty of past periods." [Passalacqua et al.,2006]

References

Centaurea oltensis

Centaurea oltensis Sosn. - "The native range of this species is NE. & E. Türkiye to Caucasus." [POWO]

Synonyms

Centaurea sessilis Willd. - "This name is a synonym of Centaurea oltensis" [POWO]

Centaurea phrygia L.

Centaurea phrygia L. - "The native range of this species is Europe to W. Siberia and Iran. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea phrygia Linnaeus, Wig Knapweed. {VA}. Reported for VA in FNA. [= FNA, K; > Centaurea austriaca Willdenow]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Centaurea ptosimopappa Hayek - "The native range of this species is S. Türkiye to Syria." [POWO]

Centaurea rupestris L.

Centaurea rupestris L. - "The native range of this species is Italy to NW. Balkan Peninsula." [POWO]

Centaurea rupestris - 20-Hydroxyecdysone [1] [Azimova Phyto]

Similar sp.

Centaurea rupestris Kit. ex Steud. = "This name is a synonym of Centaurea affinis subsp. affinis"

Centaurea scabiosa subsp. sadleriana (Janka) Asch. & Graebn.

Centaurea scabiosa subsp. sadleriana (Janka) Asch. & Graebn. "The native range of this subspecies is Central Europe to Romania. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea scabiosa Linnaeus, Greater Knapweed, Hardheads. Naturalized in KY, PA, NJ (FNA), MD (Kartesz 1999), and other states in e. North America. [= FNA, C, F, G, K]" [Weakley FSMAS]

Food Use

Centaurea scabiosa L. - Young leaves - Soups [Bellia&Pieroni]

Phytochemicals

"The isolation protocols for dibenzyl- butyrolactone lignans from the seeds of Centaurea scabiosa (63), dibenzyl-butyrolactone lignans (64) and serotonin conjugates (65) from C. nigra, and flavonol glycosides from seeds of Agrimonia eupatoria (66) and Alliaria petiolata (36) demonstrate the successful application of solid-phase extraction method in natural product isolation." [Sarker NPI]

Centaurea salonitana Vis. - Alkaloid - "Phenyl-b-naphthylamine [5]" [Azimova Alkaloids]

Centaurea sadleriana - Flavonoids - Wound healing - Csupor et al. (2010) [Gupta NVM]

Synonyms

Centaurea sadleriana Janka - "This name is a synonym of Centaurea scabiosa subsp. sadleriana" [POWO]

Centaurea salonitana Vis. - "The native range of this species is Hungary to Caucasus and W. Türkiye." [POWO]

References

Centaurea sicula subsp. sicula

Centaurea sicula subsp. sicula "The native range of this subspecies is W. & Central Medit. It grows primarily in the subtropical biome." [POWO]

Synonyms

Centaurea nicaeensis All. "This name is a synonym of Centaurea sicula subsp. sicula" [POWO]

Edible Use

Centaurea nicaensis All. - Used as food in Sicily. [Lentini & Veza,2007]

Centaurea solstitialis - Barnaby’s thistle/Yellow Starthistle

Yellow star thistle [1]
Centaurea solstitialis 		Yellow Star-thistle (Centaurea solstitialis) (6027896138) [2]
Centaurea solstitialis 		Centaurea solstitialis plant2 (12094474113) [3]
Centaurea solstitialis

Centaurea solstitialis L. - "The native range of this species is Europe to Central Asia and Iran, Arabian Peninsula. It is an annual or biennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea solstitialis Linnaeus, Barnaby's-thistle, Yellow Star-thistle. Mt (VA, WV), Pd (VA), Cp (NC, SC): roadsides, disturbed areas; rare, native of Mediterranean Europe. June-August. First reported for South Carolina by Hill & Horn (1997). [= RAB, C, F, FNA, G, K, S, SE, WV]" [Weakley FSMAS]

"Grows in disturbed soils, fields, along roads. Common at low and mid elevations. Highly aggressive noxious weed. Nonnative" [WildPNW]

Centaurea solstitialis L. "Yellow starthistle, introduced from Europe, grows on various soil types and is usually introduced on roadsides and waste areas. "Chewing disease" results when horses are forced to eat yellow starthistle." [WeedsW]

Yellow Starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) "Yellow starthistle is an annual weed common in the western half of the shrub steppe. It can be a dominant weed where precipitation is greater than 12 inches. Starthistle can be controlled using picloram, clopyralid, dicamba, glyphosate, and 2,4-D herbicides. It can be hand pulled in small areas. Grazing can provide control, but it has to be done before spines form around the flowerhead. It can also be controlled by planting of competitive grasses (Sheley et al. 1999c)." [Apostol RPNW]

Edible Use

"In Latium a commonly consumed vegetable mixture, "misticanza", is prepared with young basal leaves or buds of Tordylium apulum, Sonchus sp.pl., Silene vulgaris, Sanguisorba minor and other wild species as well as the "acquacotta", a soup prepared from young shoots of boiled plants such as Clematis vitalba, Centaurea solstitialis, Scolymus hispanicus, Nasturtium officinale etc. [29]." [Guarrera et al.,2007]

Pharamacology

"Antiulcer: The fresh, spiny flowers of yellow star thistle (C. solstitialis) have long been used for peptic ulcers in Turkey, and in vitro studies have shown the components solstitialin-A and chlorojanerin help prevent lesions and inhibit the output of stomach acids in order to heal the ulcers." [IPM]

Phytochemistry

"The sesquiterpenes 13-O-acetylsolstitialin A (3) and cynaropicrin (4) (Figure 19.1), isolated from Centaurea solstitialis, were found to be responsible for the ability of the plant to cause neurodegenerative changes in the brain of horses [15]." [Kuete TSAMP]

"The sesquiterpene alkaloid neurotoxin, repin, from Centaurea solstitialis (yellow star thistle)...." [Mackay,2013]

"Yellow star thistle (C. solstitialis)-aspartic acid, centaurocyanin, chlo- rojanerin, cyanidine, glutamic acid, solstitialin, succinylcyanin, tyramine" [IPM]

Cultivation & Propagation

"Introduced bees are also known to reduce fitness of some native plant species (Roubik 1996; Gross and Mackay 1998). On the other hand, they may enhance pollination and, consequently, invasiveness of exotic weeds, as shown by Barthell et al. (2001) for Centaurea solstitialis L. in North America and Stout et al. (2002) for Lupinus arboreus Sims in Tasmania." [Langor EINNI]

"According to Agrawal et al. (2000), spines of Centaurea solstitialis (yellow star thistle) may not only deter mammalian herbivory, but also deter lepidoptera which are illegitimate flower visitors." [Mathe MAPW]

"One of the most invasive plants of wild lands in California, Centaurea solstitialis (Howald et al. 1999; DiToamso and Gerlach, 2000; Rejmánek, and Reichard 2001), only occurs in discrete, highly disturbed patches in its native Turkey (O. Eren and J. Hierro, pers. obs.). In invaded regions, C. solstitialis appears to have substantial competitive abilities against the locals and occurs at much higher densities than at home (Dukes, 2001; Hierro et al. unpublished data)." [Reigosa Alleleopathy]

"Centaurea solstitialis (abrepuño amarillo) is a weed found in several provinces of Argentina. The toxic principle is unknown. It exclusively affects equines, which consume it voluntarily. The occurrence of the poisoning is considered to have two phases: a peak in June-July and a second peak in November-December. Affected equines are not older than 18 months. Clinical signs appear abruptly after prolonged plant consumption. Animals lose their capacity to feed and to drink water. They die due to starvation and aspiration pneumonia. Lesions are mainly bilateral affecting the substantia nigra and globus pallidus. Cavitations ranging from 0.5 to 1 cm are observed. Coagulation necrosis is observed exclusively in the grey matter (Martin et al. 1971)." [Reit-Correa PPMRT]

"More recently, yellow star thistle (C. solstitialis) is earning attention for causing equine nigropallidal encephalomalacia, a poisoning of horses (from eating an excessive quantity of the plant) that results in a Parkinson's-type disease. Originally, it was thought that this was caused by two potent neuroexcitotoxic amino acids, aspartic and glutamic acids, but other stud- ies suggest that different mechanisms must be present to account for the varying levels of these components." [IPM]

Journals of Interest

  • Gürbüz İ, Yeşilada E. Evaluation of the anti-ulcerogenic effect of sesquiterpene lactones from Centaurea solstitialis L. ssp. solstitialis by using various in vivo and biochemical techniques. J Ethnopharmacol 112: 284-291, 2007.

Image References

References

  • [Mackay,2013] MacKay, R. J., et al. "Cytotoxic activity of extracts from Hypochaeris radicata." Toxicon 70 (2013): 194-203.

Centaurea thuillieri J.Duvign. & Lambinon

"The native range of this species is Europe. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

"Centaurea pratensis Thuil. [Asteraceae]. It is a cholagogue and stomachic. The content in centaurin and bitter substances can justify the activity [46]." [Guarrera et al.,2007]

Synonyms

Centaurea transcaucasica Sosn. ex Grossh. - "The native range of this species is Caucasus." [POWO]

Centaurea virgata Lam. - Squarrose knapweed

"The native range of this species is NW. & Central Türkiye. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]

Accepted Infraspecifics = Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa (Boiss.) Gugler [POWO]

Centaurea virgata Lam. var. squarrosa (Willd.) Boiss.
"Squarrose knapweed is a competitive rangeland weed native to the eastern Mediterranean area. It is not yet widely distributed in the West, but has gained footholds in Utah, California and Oregon." [WeedsW]

References